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= Yongle Emperor =
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Introduction
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The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 - 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu
Di, was the third emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from
1402 to 1424. He was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder
of the dynasty.
In 1370, Zhu Di was granted the title of Prince of Yan. By 1380, he
had relocated to Beiping (present-day Beijing) and was responsible for
protecting the northeastern borderlands. In the 1380s and 1390s, he
proved himself to be a skilled military leader, gaining popularity
among soldiers and achieving success as a statesman. In 1399, he
rebelled against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, and launched a civil
war known as the Jingnan campaign. After three years of intense
fighting, he emerged victorious and declared himself emperor in 1402.
After ascending the throne, the Yongle Emperor elevated Beiping to the
status of a second capital, diminishing the importance of Nanjing.
Construction of the new capital between 1407 and 1420 employed
hundreds of thousands of workers. He also supervised the
reconstruction of the Grand Canal, essential for supplying Beijing and
the northern armies. The Emperor strongly supported both Confucianism
and Buddhism and sponsored the compilation of the vast 'Yongle
Encyclopedia', employing around two thousand scholars. He also ordered
Neo-Confucian texts to be systematized and used as textbooks for
training officials. The civil service examinations, held every three
years, produced qualified candidates for government service. Unlike
his father, he avoided frequent purges, resulting in longer
ministerial tenures and a more professional, stable administration.
The Emperor made considerable efforts to reinforce the empire's
hegemonic position in East Asia through an active foreign policy.
Diplomatic missions and military expeditions were dispatched to
regions both near and distant, including Manchuria, Korea, Japan, the
Philippines, and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia. Maritime
expeditions led by the eunuch admiral Zheng He extended even further,
reaching the shores of Southeast Asia, India, Persia, and East Africa.
The Mongols--including southeastern Uriankhai, eastern Mongols and
western Oirats--remained the empire's greatest security threat,
prompting the Ming court to alternately support and confront the
various groups. The Emperor personally led five campaigns into
Mongolia, and his decision to transfer the government from Nanjing to
Beijing was driven largely by the need to closely monitor the unstable
northern frontier. Although a skilled military leader, his wars were
ultimately unsuccessful, as the campaign in Đại Việt lasted until the
end of his reign and his Mongolian campaigns failed to secure China's
northern border.
Childhood (1360–1370)
=======================
Zhu Di, the future Yongle Emperor, was born on 2 May 1360 as the
fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang. At the time, Zhu Yuanzhang was based in
Nanjing and was a prominent leader of the Red Turban Rebellion, an
uprising in China against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The rebellion
sought to restore Han Chinese rule after decades of Mongol domination
following the Yuan conquest of the Song in 1279. In 1368, Zhu
Yuanzhang founded the Ming dynasty and became the Hongwu Emperor.
Ming official records, and Zhu Di himself, stated that his mother was
the Hongwu Emperor's primary wife and empress, Lady Ma. Other sources
suggest that his real mother was a concubine with the title Consort
Gong, who was either Mongolian (from the Khongirad tribe) or possibly
Korean. Zhu Di attempted to present himself as the Hongwu Emperor's
legitimate successor by declaring himself and the Hongwu Emperor's
fifth son, Zhu Su, as the only sons of Empress Ma in the 1403 edition
of the official 'Veritable Records of Taizu'. This claim was
questionable, as it was unlikely that the Hongwu Emperor would not
name a son with the Empress as his successor during his lifetime.
Therefore, in the later version of 1418, the eldest five sons--Zhu
Biao, Zhu Shuang, Zhu Gang, Zhu Di, and Zhu Su--were all recognized as
her children.
Zhu Di spent his childhood in Nanjing, where he and his siblings were
raised with a strong emphasis on discipline and modesty. Among his
siblings, he had a special fondness for his younger sister Princess
Ningguo and his younger brothers Zhu Su and Zhu Fu. Zhu Su was only 15
months younger than Zhu Di, and they became close friends despite
their contrasting personalities. While Zhu Di enjoyed activities such
as archery and horseback riding, Zhu Su preferred studying literature
and tending to plants.
The Hongwu Emperor took great care in the education of his sons,
appointing leading scholars of the empire as their tutors. Initially,
Song Lian was appointed as the teacher for the heir to the throne, and
also gave lectures to the other princes. His successor, Kong Keren (),
who taught the Emperor's sons philosophy and ethics, had a significant
influence on Zhu Di. His favorite subject was the history of the Han
dynasty, particularly Emperors Gaozu and Wu of Han, but he often
referenced examples from the life of Qin Shi Huang in his decrees as
emperor.
Youth (1370–1380)
===================
In 1368, the Emperor designated his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as heir to
the throne. On 22 April 1370, he granted princely titles to the next
nine sons, from the second to the tenth. Zhu Di received the title of
Prince of Yan, with his fief located in Beiping (present-day Beijing).
During the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, Beiping served as the capital of
China. After being conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1368, it became a
crucial stronghold for the troops guarding the northern border and was
also designated as the capital of Beiping Province.
At that time, Zhu Di came under the guidance of Hua Yunlong and Gao
Xian, who became his principal mentors. Gao spent the next four to
five years lecturing the prince on Confucian classics, history,
agriculture, and irrigation. He also trained Zhu Di in poetry and
prose writing, and instructed him in the principles of governance and
the selection of subordinates. After Hua's death and Gao's dismissal,
Fei Yu, Qiu Guang, Wang Wuban, and Zhu Fu took over Zhu Di's
education. Despite receiving a comprehensive education from esteemed
teachers, Zhu Di's true passion lay in military affairs rather than
scholarly study and palace discussions.
In early 1376, Zhu Di married the daughter of the senior Ming general
Xu Da, who had played a significant role in the founding of the
dynasty. Zhu Di's bride, Lady Xu, was two years younger than him and
was known for her intelligence, decisiveness, and energy. The couple's
marriage was political in nature, strengthening ties between their
families, but they gradually developed a deep affection for one
another over the next 31 years. Their first son, Zhu Gaochi, was born
in August 1378. The couple had two more sons, Zhu Gaoxu in 1380 and
Zhu Gaosui in 1383.
A few weeks after his wedding, Zhu Di traveled to Fengyang (then known
as Zhongdu, the Central Capital), where he spent seven months in
military training alongside his elder brothers Zhu Shuang and Zhu
Gang. Two years later, he returned to Fengyang with his younger
brothers Zhu Su, Zhu Zhen, and Zhu Fu, remaining there for another two
years. During this period, he trained in command and combat and
learned military logistics, including the acquisition and transport of
supplies. He developed organizational abilities that he later applied
effectively in warfare. He also disguised himself as an ordinary
soldier to experience the lives of common people, and later recalled
his years in Fengyang as the happiest of his life.
In 1376, Li Wenzhong (), the nephew and adopted son of the Hongwu
Emperor and the official responsible for northern defense, was tasked
with preparing Zhu Di's palace in Beiping. Using former Yuan imperial
palaces, he provided Zhu Di with a residence that was larger and more
heavily fortified than those of his brothers, many of whom lived in
converted temples or local government buildings. Li Wenzhong also
strengthened the city's defenses, a decision that proved significant
during the civil war when his son, Li Jinglong, failed to capture
Beiping in 1399.
Prince of Yan in Beiping (1380–1398)
======================================
In April 1380, at the age of 20, Zhu Di moved to Beiping, where he
encountered strong Mongolian cultural influences that the government
sought to suppress by banning Mongolian customs, clothing, and names.
The city had largely recovered from the famines and wars of the 1350s
and 1360s and was undergoing renewed growth. It housed hundreds of
thousands of soldiers, along with provincial officials, artisans, and
laborers from across the empire. The primary challenge for local
authorities was ensuring an adequate food supply. To address this,
peasants were resettled in the north, soldiers and convicts were
assigned to farm the land, and merchants were granted salt-trading
licenses in exchange for transporting grain to the region. The
government also shipped food supplies directly to the city.
Zhu Di's interest in military affairs was reflected in his personal
training of his guard troops. He used these forces to balance the
power of the provincial commander, who could not mobilize troops
without authorization from the Emperor and approval from the prince.
Zhu Di was free to deploy his own forces independently. In 1381, he
had his first experience in the field when he joined his father-in-law
Xu Da's campaign against the Mongols, led by Nayur Buqa.
In the 1380s, Zhu Di served in border defense under the leadership of
Xu Da, who was succeeded by Fu Youde after Xu's death in 1385. In
1387, Zhu Di participated in a successful attack on the Mongols in
Liaodong, led by Feng Sheng. The following year, a Ming army led by
Lan Yu made a foray into eastern Mongolia and defeated the Mongol khan
Tögüs Temür, capturing many prisoners and horses. However, both
generals were accused of mistreating captives and misappropriating
booty, which the prince reported to the Emperor.
In January 1390, the Emperor entrusted his sons with independent
command for the first time. He gave Zhu Gang, Zhu Di, and Zhu Fu the
task of leading a punitive expedition against the Mongol commanders
Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were threatening Shanxi and Gansu. Zhu
Di demonstrated excellent command skills when he defeated and captured
both Mongol commanders in battle. They then served under him with
their troops. The Emperor appreciated Zhu Di's success over Zhu Gang's
hesitancy. Zhu Di continued to lead armies into battle against the
Mongols repeatedly and with great success.
The Emperor's heir, Zhu Biao, died in 1392, prompting discussions at
court over the succession. The principle of primogeniture, supported
by Hanlin Academy scholars and senior officials, ultimately prevailed.
The Emperor named Zhu Biao's son Zhu Yunwen as the new heir, and
appointed the generals Feng Sheng, Fu Youde, and Lan Yu as his
grandson's tutors. All three generals were related to Zhu Yunwen.
After a recommendation by Zhu Di, the Hongwu Emperor began to suspect
the generals of treason. Zhu Di had a poor relationship with Lan, and
according to historian Wang Shizhen (1526-1590), he played a role in
Lan's execution in March 1393. The other two generals died under
unclear circumstances around 1394-1395. They were subsequently
replaced by princes. In 1393, the Emperor gave Zhu Gang military
command of Shanxi province and Zhu Di command of Beiping province. Zhu
Shuang, the commander of Shaanxi, died in 1395.
The Emperor was deeply affected by the death of his two eldest sons
and the strained relations between his remaining sons and his heir. He
decided to revise the rules governing the imperial family, and he
significantly limited the rights of the princes. These changes had
little impact on Zhu Di's status as they did not affect his main area
of expertise--the military, and he was cautious not to give any reason
for criticism. For example, he did not object to the execution of his
generals Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür on charges of treason. He also
exercised caution in diplomatic relations, such as when he welcomed
Korean delegations passing through Beiping, to avoid any indication of
disrespect towards the Emperor's authority.
Out of the six princes responsible for guarding the northern border,
Zhu Di was the second oldest and emerged as the dominant prince in the
north. He operated across a vast territory stretching from Liaodong to
the bend of the Yellow River. His aggressive approach was demonstrated
in the summer of 1396, when he defeated the Mongols led by Polin Temür
at Daning (present-day Chengde, Hebei). He and Zhu Gang went on a raid
several hundred kilometers north of the Great Wall, earning them a
sharp reprimand from their father. In April 1398, Zhu Gang died,
leaving Zhu Di as the undisputed leader of the northern border
defense. Two months later, the Hongwu Emperor also died.
Conflict with the Jianwen Emperor (1398–1399)
===============================================
After the death of the Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne
as the Jianwen Emperor. His closest advisors immediately began
revising the Hongwu Emperor's reforms. Their most significant decision
was an attempt to limit and eventually eliminate the power of the
Hongwu Emperor's sons, who controlled a significant portion of the
empire's military forces. The government employed various methods to
remove five of the princes, including exile, house arrest, and forced
suicide.
The government regarded Zhu Di as the most dangerous of the princes.
Consequently, the court treated him cautiously and sought to limit his
power by replacing military commanders in the northeast with generals
loyal to the Jianwen Emperor and transferring 15,000 troops away from
his command in Beiping. Successful in convincing the Emperor of his
loyalty, Zhu Di petitioned for leniency toward his brother Zhu Su and
asked that his sons be allowed to return from Nanjing, where they had
remained since the Hongwu Emperor's funeral as de facto hostages. In
June 1399, the Emperor's advisor Huang Zicheng persuaded him that
releasing Zhu Di's sons would help ease tensions.
In early August 1399, Zhu Di used the arrest of two of his officials
as a pretext for rebellion. He claimed that he was rising up to
protect the Emperor from the corrupt court officials. With the support
of Beiping dignitaries, he gained control of the city's garrison and
occupied the surrounding prefectures and counties. He attempted to
justify his actions through letters sent to the court in August and
December 1399, as well as through a public statement.
Zhu Di repeatedly stated that he had no ambition for the throne.
However, he believed it was his duty as the Hongwu Emperor's eldest
surviving son to restore laws and order that had been undermined by
the Jianwen government. He accused the Jianwen Emperor and his
advisors of concealing information about his father's illness and
preventing him from attending the funeral. The prince also criticized
their harsh treatment of his brothers. Claiming to act in self-defense
against the Emperor's corrupt ministers, Zhu Di described his actions
as the Jingnan campaign--a campaign to clear away disorders.
Civil war (1399–1402)
=======================
At the start of the war, Zhu Di commanded a force of 100,000 soldiers
and only held control over the immediate area surrounding Beiping.
Despite the Nanjing government's larger number of armies and greater
material resources, Zhu Di's soldiers were of higher quality and he
possessed a strong Mongol cavalry. His military leadership skills were
superior to the indecisiveness and lack of coordination displayed by
the government's generals.
In September 1399, a government army of 130,000 soldiers under the
command of the veteran general Geng Bingwen marched towards Zhending,
a city southwest of Beiping. By the end of the month, the army had
suffered a decisive defeat. The court appointed a new commander, Li
Jinglong, who led a new army to besiege Beiping on 12 November. Zhu
Di, who had been gathering troops in the northeast, swiftly returned
and defeated the surprised Li army. The soldiers from the south, who
were not accustomed to the cold weather, were forced to retreat to
Dezhou in Shandong.
Zhu Di's army fought in the southern part of Beiping province and
northwestern Shandong, with varying levels of success in 1400. In the
spring, he led a successful attack into Datong, defeating Li Jinglong
near Baoding in May and outside Dezhou in June, but due to concerns
about potential enemy reinforcements, Zhu Di ended the siege of Jinan
in September and retreated to Beiping. Li Jinglong's lackluster
performance led the government to appoint Sheng Yong as the new
commander of the counterinsurgency army.
The following year, Zhu Di attempted to weaken the enemy by attacking
smaller units, which disrupted the supply of government troops. Both
sides then focused on breaking through along the Grand Canal. Zhu Di
suffered a defeat at Dongchang in January, but was victorious at Jia
River in April. The front continued to move back and forth for the
rest of the year.
By 1402, Zhu Di had abandoned further advances along the Grand Canal
and instead moved west, bypassing Dezhou. He conquered Xuzhou in early
March. The government troops retreated south to Zhili and were
repeatedly defeated. The rebels reached the north bank of the Yangtze
River in July. When the commander of the government fleet defected to
Zhu Di's side, the rebel army crossed the river without resistance and
advanced on Nanjing. The betrayal of Zhu Di's brother Zhu Hui and
cousin Li Jinglong allowed him to capture the capital on 13 July 1402
with little resistance. In the ensuing clashes, the imperial palace
burned down. Three bodies found at the burnt palace were later
announced to be those of the Emperor, his wife, and their son.
Accession to the throne (1402)
================================
Zhu Di ascended the throne on 17 July 1402, officially succeeding his
father. As late as the summer of 1402, the new emperor was still
dealing with the Jianwen Emperor's followers, who denied the
legitimacy of Zhu Di's rule. He responded by erasing the Jianwen
Emperor's reign from history. This included abolishing the Jianwen era
and extending the Hongwu era until the end of 1402. He then adopted
Yongle ("perpetual happiness") as his own era name. He abolished the
reforms and laws implemented by the Jianwen government, restored the
titles and privileges of the princes, and destroyed government
archives (with the exception of financial and military records).
Several of the Jianwen Emperor's supporters, such as Fang Xiaoru and
Liu Jing (), refused to be involved in the new emperor's
administration, and he had them executed. Huang Zicheng and Qi Tai,
the leading advocates of the policy to reduce the princes' power, were
executed along with their family members, teachers, students, and
followers. Many others were imprisoned or exiled to the frontier, and
tens of thousands of people were purged.
The Yongle Emperor had the 'Veritable Records of Taizu' rewritten. His
government disapproved of the original version, created in 1402 at the
court of the Jianwen Emperor, and he remained dissatisfied with a
revised version completed in July 1403. The final version, completed
in June 1418, stressed the Yongle Emperor's claim to the throne. It
included claims that he was the son of Empress Ma, a potential
successor to the Hongwu Emperor, the intended regent of the Jianwen
Emperor, and an exceptionally talented military leader favored by his
father.
Government and administration
===============================
Historians such as Chan Hok-lam, Edward Dreyer, and Frederick Mote
have often described the reign of the Yongle Emperor as the "second
founding" of the Ming dynasty, reflecting the major changes he
introduced to his father's political system. He often ruled "from
horseback", traveling between the two capitals in a manner reminiscent
of the Yuan emperors. This approach, however, was criticized by
officials who feared the growing influence of court eunuchs and
military elites, whose power depended on imperial favor.
In contrast to the frequent turnover of officials under the Hongwu
Emperor, the upper levels of the Yongle Emperor's administration
remained relatively stable. Although the Emperor occasionally
imprisoned ministers, the large-scale purges characteristic of the
Hongwu era did not recur. Known for imposing harsh punishments on
failure, he nonetheless readily rewarded capable officials. Eunuchs
and generals handled major political affairs, while officials managed
finance, judicial matters, and routine administration. Administrative
fragmentation, a characteristic feature of the Hongwu Emperor's reign,
declined, allowing the Emperor to devote less attention to day-to-day
details.
The political influence of the bureaucratic apparatus gradually
increased. The most significant development was the emergence of the
Grand Secretariat, which played a crucial role in the politics of the
Yongle Emperor's successors. Under the leadership of the grand
secretaries, officials gained control of the government.
Princes and generals
======================
The Emperor restored the titles of the princes of Zhou, Qi, and Min,
which had been abolished by the Jianwen Emperor, but these titles did
not come with the same power and authority as before. During the
latter half of his reign, the Yongle Emperor accused many of these
princes of committing crimes and punished them by removing their
personal guards. He had previously condemned the same actions when
they were carried out by the Jianwen Emperor. In order to reduce
political threats, the Yongle Emperor relocated several border princes
from the north to central and southern China. By the end of his reign,
the princes had lost much of their political influence.
One of the Yongle Emperor's first actions upon assuming the throne was
to reorganize the military command. He promoted loyal generals and
granted them titles and ranks. In October 1402, he appointed two dukes
('gong'; )--the generals Qiu Fu and Zhu Neng ()--as well as 14
marquises ('hou'; ) and nine counts ('bo'; ). In addition, one dukedom
and three countships were granted to dignitaries who had defected to
his side before the fall of Nanjing--Li Jinglong, Chen Xuan (), Ru
Chang (), and Wang Zuo (). In June 1403, nine lower-ranking generals
from the civil war were also appointed as marquises or counts. In the
following years, meritorious military leaders from the campaigns
against the Mongols, including those of Mongolian origin, were also
granted the titles of duke, marquis, and count.
The Emperor established a new hereditary military nobility. Although
their stipends from the state treasury were relatively modest, the
prestige attached to these titles was far more important. They
commanded armies in the Emperor's name, at a time when the princes had
been stripped of political influence. This nobility also enjoyed
immunity from punishment by local authorities, though it differed
significantly from the system of the Hongwu era. Under Hongwu,
generals who had been the Emperor's comrades-in-arms held higher
status, maintained personal followings, and exercised substantial
regional power, which eventually posed a threat and led to their
elimination. In contrast, during the Yongle era, members of the
military nobility did not participate in civil or regional
administration and were not assigned permanent military units.
Instead, they led armies assembled on an 'ad hoc' basis. The Emperor
frequently led campaigns in person alongside them, strengthening
personal bonds. The military nobility remained closely tied to and
loyal to the Emperor. Large-scale purges were unnecessary, and
punishments were generally limited to individuals who failed in their
duties. The military nobility played a prominent role during the reign
and participated in many of its military campaigns.
Officials and authorities
===========================
The Emperor reorganized the civilian administration, gaining the
support of officials who had often served under the previous
government. He restored the administrative structure of the Hongwu era
but introduced several modifications. In 1402, the Grand Secretariat
was created to act as an intermediary between the Emperor and the
government, partially replacing the Central Secretariat that had been
abolished in 1380. Despite their informal position, the grand
secretaries quickly gained dominance in the civil administration.
The Grand Secretariat was established in August 1402, when the Emperor
began addressing administrative affairs during working dinners with
Huang Huai and Xie Jin after the evening audience. In September 1402,
he appointed five additional grand secretaries: Hu Guang, Yang Rong,
Yang Shiqi, Jin Youzi, and Hu Yan. All seven were well educated and
experienced administrators who had previously served in lower posts
under the Jianwen administration. Their formal rank was relatively
low, but the Emperor granted them prestigious titles within the
household of the heir apparent. Over time, the grand secretaries
evolved from clerks handling correspondence into influential political
figures who proposed policy solutions. Their close access to the
Emperor gave them an advantage over ministers, and some even
accompanied him on his campaigns against the Mongols. During this
period, the Emperor's son and heir, Zhu Gaochi, governed the empire
with the support of the grand secretaries and selected ministers. Zhu
Gaochi formed a close relationship with these officials and became the
'de facto' representative of the official bureaucracy.
The Yongle Emperor was careful in selecting senior officials for the
state administration, including grand secretaries and key ministers.
He placed special trust in those who had supported him during the
civil war, such as Jin Zhong (), Guo Zi (), Lü Zhen (), and Wu Zhong
(). These ministers, drawn from across China, were all well educated
and capable administrators. Among them, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji
enjoyed the Emperor's greatest confidence. Xia promoted fiscal
restraint and the use of resources for the benefit of the population,
earning the Emperor's respect for his integrity. Xia held office for
19 years until 1421, when he, together with Minister of Justice Wu
Zhong and Minister of War Fang Bin, opposed the costly Mongol
campaign. Despite their protest, the Emperor proceeded with the
campaign; Fang committed suicide, while Wu and Xia were imprisoned.
Following the Yongle Emperor's death, they were rehabilitated and
restored to office. Other long-serving ministers included Jian Yi (),
Song Li (), and Liu Quan (). Throughout most of the Yongle era, the
leadership of four out of the Six Ministries (Personnel, Revenue,
Rites, and Works) showed remarkable stability, with the same
individual ministers typically heading each respective office for
extended periods. Several ministers continued to serve in their
positions even after the Yongle Emperor's death.
The regular cycle of civil service examinations also contributed to
the improvement and stabilization of administration at lower levels.
In the second decade of the Yongle Emperor's reign, the examinations
were held every three years. A total of 1,833 individuals passed the
examinations in the capital, and the majority of these graduates were
appointed to government positions. The Imperial University, which was
previously responsible for selecting officials, lost its significance
and became a place for candidates to study for the palace
examinations. By the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign, the Ministry
of Personnel had a sufficient number of examination graduates to fill
important positions at the county level and above.
Eunuchs
=========
The Yongle Emperor relied heavily on eunuchs, more so than his father
did. He even recruited eunuchs from the Jianwen era, with whom he had
been associated during the civil war. These eunuchs came from various
backgrounds, including Mongolian, Central Asian, Jurchen, and Korean.
In addition to their duties within the Forbidden City, the Yongle
Emperor trusted their unwavering loyalty and often assigned them tasks
outside the palace's walls, such as surveillance and intelligence
gathering.
Eunuchs also held positions of military command and led diplomatic
missions. They were well-known, unpopular, and feared as the Emperor's
secret agents responsible for monitoring both civilian and military
officials. While they were known for exposing corrupt officials, they
also had a reputation for abusing their power and succumbing to
corruption themselves. In 1420, a special investigation office was
established, informally known as the "Eastern Depot" due to its
location in the palace. This office was responsible for overseeing the
judiciary, but it became infamous for its role in the disappearance of
individuals. Stories of innocent imprisonment, torture, and
unexplained deaths involving the office circulated until the end of
the dynasty.
Succession struggle
=====================
The Yongle Emperor had four sons. The first three were born to Empress
Xu; the fourth, Zhu Gaoxi, died in infancy. The eldest son, Zhu
Gaochi, was not physically fit and instead of warfare, he focused on
literature and poetry. The second son, Zhu Gaoxu, was tall and strong,
a successful warrior, but the third son, Zhu Gaosui, was mediocre in
character and ability.
Many influential officials, including Qiu Fu, suggested that Zhu Gaoxu
should be the heir to the throne. They argued for his prowess and
military skills, citing his past actions of saving his father from
danger and turning the tide of battles during the civil war. Grand
Secretary Xie Jin disagreed and argued that the people would admire
Zhu Gaochi for his humanity. He also reminded the Emperor of the
future accession of Zhu Zhanji, the Emperor's favorite grandson and
Zhu Gaochi's eldest son. The Emperor eventually designated Zhu Gaochi
as heir to the throne on 9 May 1404, and appointed Qiu Fu as his tutor
the following day.
At the same time, the Emperor appointed Zhu Gaoxu as the Prince of Han
in Yunnan, a distant southwestern province, and Zhu Gaosui as the
Prince of Zhao in Beijing. Zhu Gaoxu refused to depart for Yunnan, and
the Emperor eventually relented, allowing tensions between his first
and second sons to intensify. In the spring of 1407, Zhu Gaoxu
succeeded in slandering Xie Jin, who was accused of showing favoritism
towards Jiangxi natives in the examinations. Xie was then transferred
to the province and later imprisoned. In 1414, when the Emperor
returned from his campaign in Mongolia, members of Zhu Gaochi's
entourage were accused of arriving late to the welcoming ceremony. Zhu
Gaoxu urged his father to punish them, and several of Zhu Gaochi's
advisors, including the grand secretaries Yang Shiqi and Huang Huai,
were imprisoned. Yang eventually cleared his name and resumed his
position, but Huang remained imprisoned until the end of the Yongle
era. In 1416, the Emperor gave Zhu Gaoxu a new fief in Qingzhou
Prefecture in Shandong. Once again, he refused to leave, which led his
father to reprimand him. He then began to raise his own army and even
had an army officer killed. His father stripped him of his titles,
demoted him to a common subject, and later imprisoned him. The
following year, he was deported to Shandong.
The new capital
=================
The Yongle Emperor's most significant accomplishment was the
relocation of the capital from Nanjing (Southern Capital; then
officially known as Yingtian) to Beijing (Northern Capital), which had
been known as Beiping (Pacified North) until 1403. The idea of moving
the capital from Nanjing to the north was first considered by the
Hongwu Emperor in the early 1390s. Despite Nanjing's proximity to the
empire's economic center in the Yangtze Delta, both the Hongwu and
Yongle emperors faced the challenge of governing the empire's northern
and western borders from a great distance, which required a
significant amount of attention. Additionally, the Yongle Emperor
likely regarded Beijing as the center of his personal power, whereas
he remained something of an outsider in Nanjing. Beijing was
strategically located on the northern border, accessible by the Grand
Canal and in close proximity to the sea, making it a convenient
location for supplies. Its history as the capital of the Liao, Jin,
and Yuan dynasties also added to its significance.
The relocation of the capital was a demanding undertaking that
required the large-scale mobilization of people and resources from
across the empire. In February 1403, the Emperor initiated the move by
designating Beijing as a secondary capital. The city was formally
renamed Shuntian (Obedient to Heaven), but it continued to be commonly
known as Beijing. He appointed his eldest son, Zhu Gaochi, to
administer the city and province and established branches of central
ministries and chief military commissions there. In 1404, 10,000
families from Shanxi were relocated to the city, and Beijing and its
surrounding areas were granted a two-year tax exemption. The following
year, more than 120,000 landless households from the Yangtze Delta
were moved north, and construction of government buildings began.
Timber was harvested from forests in Jiangxi, Huguang, Zhejiang,
Shanxi, and Sichuan to supply the palaces in Beijing. Although
artisans and laborers were dispatched from across the empire,
construction progressed slowly due to supply constraints. The Emperor
returned to northern China in March 1409, following the end of the
first Mongol campaign. When he returned to Nanjing the following year,
officials criticized the excessive expenditure on construction in
Beijing, leading to reduced spending and a slowdown in construction
that lasted several years.
From 1414 to the end of 1416, the Emperor remained in Beijing during
the campaign in Mongolia. The reconstruction of the Grand Canal was
completed in 1415, which greatly aided in the supply of the north.
Construction then resumed at a faster pace. Estimates place the number
of workers involved in building the city at several hundred thousand.
The chief architects and engineers included Cai Xin (), Nguyễn An (a
Viet eunuch), Kuai Xiang and Lu Xiang (). By the end of 1417, most of
the palaces were completed, but construction on the walls continued.
In 1420, the city was deemed ready for the relocation of the
government. On 28 October 1420, Beijing was officially declared the
principal capital of the empire, and by February 1421, ministries and
other government agencies had relocated to Beijing. The Beijing
authorities administered the empire from 1421. Some ministries
remained in Nanjing, but their powers were limited to the southern
metropolitan area and held little political significance. The cost of
supplying Beijing, which was located far from the economically
developed regions of the country, was a constant burden on the state
treasury.
In 1421, a famine broke out in the northern provinces. At the same
time, three major audience halls in the newly built Forbidden City
were destroyed by fire. The Emperor regarded the event as a sign of
Heaven's displeasure. He called upon government officials to critique
the mistakes of the government. A junior secretary named Xiao Yi
strongly criticized the decision to build the capital in the north and
was subsequently executed. This effectively silenced any further
discussion on the matter.
Grand Canal
=============
In the centuries before the Yongle Emperor's reign, the Grand Canal
had fallen into disrepair and was partly unusable. Early in the Yongle
Emperor's rule, rice supplies to Beijing and the northern armies
relied on two routes. One ran from Liujiagang in the Yangtze Delta
through the East China Sea to Tianjin, but this sea route was
dangerous because of storms and piracy. The other passed through
inland rivers and canals in Anhui, Shandong, and Hubei, but required
multiple transfers of cargo. Annually, 480,000 to 800,000 'dan' of
rice were shipped by sea, while inland routes carried even more, with
a total of 2 to 2.5 million 'dan' delivered to the north between 1410
and 1414. This inefficient system placed a heavy burden on the
population. The Emperor approved a petition from officials in Shandong
for the restoration of a continuous north-south waterway. The
government mobilized 165,000 workers to rebuild the canal and
constructed 15 locks in western Shandong. After completion in 1415,
transport became faster and cheaper. Rice shipments rose to 5 million
'dan' in 1417 and 4.7 million in 1418, before later stabilizing at 2-3
million annually. 160,000 soldiers handled transport using 15,000
ships, while 47,000 workers maintained the canal. The reopening of the
Grand Canal stimulated economic growth along its route, but also ended
sea transport of grain to the north, contributing to a decline in
naval shipbuilding.
The reopening of the Grand Canal had a positive impact on Suzhou. Its
strategic location in the middle of the canal network south of the
Yangtze (which was reconstructed after 1403) allowed the city to
regain its status as a major commercial hub and experience a return to
prosperity after being deprived of it during the reign of the Hongwu
Emperor. Nanjing's political and economic influence declined,
relegating it to a regional center, though it remained the foremost
cultural center of the empire.
Culture
=========
The Emperor portrayed himself as a patron of education and a model
Confucian leader in order to solidify his legitimacy. He actively
promoted traditional education, commissioned the compilation of
Confucian classics, and declared Confucianism as the official state
ideology. In 1414, he tasked scholars from the Hanlin Academy with
creating a comprehensive collection of commentaries on the Four Books
and Five Classics by Zhu Xi and other prominent Confucian thinkers of
his school. This project was completed by October 1415 and became the
official guide for teaching and examinations.
The 'Yongle Encyclopedia' was the most significant and extensive
collection of encyclopedias during the Yongle era. The Emperor
commissioned Grand Secretary Xie Jin to compile a collection that
included all known books, either partially or completely. This project
involved 2,169 scholars from the Hanlin Academy and the Imperial
University and took four years to complete, finishing in December
1407. The scope of the encyclopedia was vast, consisting of 22,277
'juan' (chapters), with the table of contents alone spanning 60
'juan', but it was not published and only a few manuscripts were kept
in the imperial libraries. Currently, only 700 'juan' have survived.
This encyclopedia covered a wide range of topics and included
materials from all fields of Chinese literature. Its significance lies
in its contribution to the preservation of Chinese literature, as it
was used by compilers in the 17th century.
The lamas from Tibet impressed the Emperor, and more than two thousand
Tibetan monks resided in Beijing. He promoted the spread of Buddhism
among the non-Chinese peoples of the empire, seeking to pacify
conflicts and maintain peaceful rule over them. However, his reverence
for Buddhism had its boundaries. He only allowed his subjects to
become monks to a limited extent, following the Hongwu Emperor's
decree that only one man out of 40 could do so.
Mongolian campaigns
=====================
The Ming government sought to integrate the Mongols into the tributary
trade system, under which they exchanged horses and other livestock
for paper money, silver, silk, cloth, and official titles. It also
imposed strict limits on the volume of trade. When nomadic groups were
unable to obtain sufficient goods through peaceful exchange, they
often turned to raiding. Many Mongols also migrated into China and
frequently served in the military and other imperial services.
The Mongols were divided into two main groups: the Western (Oirats)
and Eastern Mongols, while the Uriankhai formed a separate group. The
Ming dynasty had a strong relationship with the Uriankhai, who aided
the Yongle Emperor during the civil war and earned his trust. The
Emperor resettled them in the territory that had been vacated by Ming
troops in 1403.
In the early years of the Yongle Emperor's reign, the Eastern Mongols
remained consistently hostile, while the Ming court established
relations with the weaker Oirats, whose envoys began visiting China
regularly from 1408. Encouraged by the Ming, the Oirats attacked the
Eastern Mongols in 1409. The Ming army also intervened but was
defeated in September, resulting in the death of its commander, Qiu
Fu. This defeat led the Emperor to take direct action. In March 1410,
he personally led a massive army from Beijing and defeated Öljei Temür
Khan Bunyashiri and his chancellor Arughtai after a three-month
campaign. Afterward, the Ming dynasty maintained peaceful relations
with the Eastern Mongols, now under Arughtai's leadership, for the
following decade.
The balance of power on the steppe shifted after 1410. In 1412, the
Oirat leader Mahmud killed Bunyashiri and established a puppet khan at
Karakorum. As he expanded eastward against Arughtai in an apparent
attempt to unite the Mongols under his rule, the Oirats emerged as a
powerful new force. Their rise alarmed the Ming court and prompted the
Yongle Emperor to launch a second campaign into Mongolia in 1414. The
Oirat cavalry suffered heavy losses in a battle along the upper Tuul
River due to the superior firepower of the Ming artillery. By August,
the Emperor was content with the situation and returned to Beijing.
Renewed hostilities erupted in 1421 when the Eastern Mongols launched
cross-border raids. The Emperor decided to march against them in 1422,
1423, and 1424 despite opposition from his ministers. His efforts were
ultimately unsuccessful. The campaign was costly and achieved few
tangible results, largely because the Mongols avoided direct
confrontation with the advancing Ming armies. The Emperor died while
returning from his fifth campaign in Mongolia.
The Emperor had been unable to subdue the Mongols. His campaigns into
Mongolia did not result in any lasting changes and proved to be
extremely costly. Although the Chinese had larger armies, more
resources, and better weaponry, the nomads' mobility and the vastness
of the battlefield negated these advantages. The Yongle Emperor's
policy of exploiting divisions among rival Mongol leaders also proved
unsuccessful. Rather than securing Ming influence, it alienated the
competing factions and undermined relations between the Mongols and
the Ming dynasty. His policies, particularly the withdrawal of several
forward garrisons to the vicinity of the Great Wall, weakened the Ming
dynasty's position in the steppe.
Manchuria, Korea, and Japan
=============================
Among the Jurchens living in Manchuria, the Ming government sought to
maintain peace along the frontier and counter Korean influence. It
also aimed to obtain horses and other local products, such as furs,
while promoting Chinese culture and values among the Jurchens. The
Yongle Emperor sent the first mission to Manchuria in 1403, offering
Chinese goods and titles in exchange for the Jurchens' recognition of
their subordination. From 1411 onwards, the Emperor entrusted the
eunuch Yishiha with expeditions to the distant hunting tribes of
northern Manchuria. Yishiha's squadron sailed down the Amur River,
reaching as far as its mouth at Tyr, and declared the local Jurchens
as subjects of the Ming dynasty.
By acknowledging Ming supremacy, the Koreans secured protection
against northern tribes, especially the Jurchens, which brought border
stability and enhanced the authority of their government through
official recognition from China. The ruling Joseon dynasty only came
into power in 1392. The exchange of envoys, which had been frequent
under previous emperors, continued during the Yongle Emperor's reign.
The Emperor's first ambassadors went to Korea in 1402 to announce his
ascension. In the years that followed, there were regular contacts
between the two countries, with the Koreans sending two to three
delegations per year. The Koreans saw some of the Ming demands as
excessive and difficult, but they fulfilled them nonetheless. These
demands included providing horses and oxen for military purposes,
bronze Buddha statues, relics, paper for printing Buddhist literature,
and even sending girls to serve in the imperial harem.
Relations with the Ashikaga government of Japan were at a standstill
during the Hongwu era. Hu Weiyong, who was executed in 1380, was
accused of conspiring with Japanese assistance. In 1399, Shōgun
Yoshimitsu () took the initiative to restore contacts in order to make
profit from trade with China. This led to another mission being sent
in 1403, during which the Yongle Emperor's sovereignty was recognized.
In the same year, the Ming government opened maritime trade offices in
Ningbo, Quanzhou, and Guangzhou, which allowed Japanese merchants with
government licenses to trade. In 1411, Shōgun Yoshimochi ()
implemented an isolationist policy and interrupted official relations.
He also rejected the Ming's attempt to re-establish relations in 1417,
although strong demand for Chinese goods and coins sustained illegal
private trade through the ports of southern Japan.
War in Đại Việt
=================
Đại Việt faced growing internal strife by the late 14th century. The
kingdom, located in present-day northern Vietnam, was known to the
Ming as Annam and ruled by the Trần dynasty. Lê Quý Ly overthrew the
Trần dynasty in 1400 and renamed the state Đại Ngu. The Yongle Emperor
recognized the new Viet government and confirmed Lê Quý Ly's son as
the ruler of Đại Ngu in the winter of 1403, but relations between the
two countries were strained due to escalating border disputes. Lê Quý
Ly prepared for the impending conflict and continued to engage in
border skirmishes. In the spring of 1406, his soldiers ambushed Ming
diplomatic envoys accompanying the Trần pretender. The incident
prompted the Yongle Emperor to order an invasion. The Ming army had
attacked Đại Ngu from two directions by late 1406, and resistance was
quelled by mid-1407. In July, the country was officially annexed to
the Ming dynasty as Jiaozhi Province.
Supporters of the Trần dynasty launched a rebellion in 1408, but the
Ming army defeated them the next year. Another rebellion erupted
shortly after and was only fully crushed in 1414 when the Chinese
captured the rebel leader, Trần Quý Khoáng. The majority of the Ming
army was unable to withdraw until 1416. By the end of 1417, the Viet
people launched another rebellion, led by military leader Lê Lợi. The
Ming generals were unable to suppress the rebellion until the end of
the Yongle Emperor's reign.
Treasure voyages
==================
In 1405, the Yongle Emperor appointed his favorite commander, the
eunuch Zheng He, as admiral of a fleet with the purpose of expanding
China's influence and collecting tribute from various nations. Two
thousand ships were constructed to aid Zheng He in his seven voyages,
including numerous large "treasure ships", and he embarked on six
voyages to the Indian Ocean from 1405 to 1421. The first voyage took
place from 1405 to 1407 and consisted of 250 or 317 ships, including
62 large "treasure ships". A total of 27,800 people were on board. The
final voyage was made during the Xuande Emperor's reign from 1431 to
1433. Chinese sailors followed the main trade routes of Southeast and
South Asia, sailing into the Indian Ocean. During the first three
expeditions, they sailed to South India, with their main destination
being Calicut, the commercial center of the region. In the following
four voyages, they reached Hormuz in Persia, while separate squadrons
visited various ports in the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.
In the early years of the Yongle era, Timur's campaigns disrupted
traditional trade connections with Central Asia. One of the initial
goals of sending emissaries by sea to the Indian Ocean may have been
to find potential allies against the Timurid Empire. This goal became
less relevant when Timur died in 1405, at the beginning of the
campaign to China. The Ming dynasty then established relations with
his successors.
In addition to foreign policy and trade goals, Zheng's expeditions had
the task of mapping the countries visited and had an educational
aspect as well. The Chinese were interested in bringing back exotic
animals and plants for medicinal purposes. After the deaths of Zheng
He in 1433 and the Xuande Emperor in 1435, the new Confucian-led
government discontinued large-scale maritime expeditions. Instead,
they favored restricting foreign interaction and maritime commerce.
The loss of key supporters of long-distance sailing was just one
factor in the decision to abandon an active maritime policy. In the
eyes of the bureaucracy, the high costs of maintaining the fleet
primarily meant an undue increase in the power of eunuchs, who
controlled these funds. Cutting naval expenditures also reduced the
eunuchs' influence at court.
Death and legacy
======================================================================
On 1 April 1424, the Emperor embarked on his final campaign into
Mongolia, but the campaign was unsuccessful and he fell into a deep
depression. He died on 12 August 1424 in Yumuchuan, located north of
Duolun. While official annals do not provide a specific cause of
death, private records suggest that he suffered from multiple strokes
in his final years, with the last proving to be fatal. He was buried
in the Chang Mausoleum (), the first of the Ming tombs located north
of Beijing.
The Yongle Emperor's son Zhu Gaochi succeeded him as the Hongxi
Emperor, but his reign was brief. The Hongxi Emperor died in May 1425,
and his son Zhu Zhanji ascended the throne as the Xuande Emperor. The
young emperor's accession was contested by his uncle Zhu Gaoxu, but
the revolt was swiftly suppressed.
The Yongle Emperor received the posthumous name Emperor Wen (Cultured
Emperor) and the temple name Taizong (Grand Ancestor), which was
customary for second emperors of the dynasty. In 1538, the Jiajing
Emperor changed the Yongle Emperor's temple name to Chengzu
(Accomplished Progenitor) in order to strengthen the legitimacy of his
decision to elevate his father to imperial status after his death. The
use of the character 'cheng', which means perfection, completion, or
accomplishment, shows a high level of respect for the Yongle Emperor
and his accomplishments.
Chinese historians in the following centuries saw the Yongle Emperor
as the ideal ruler--an energetic and capable general, a Confucian, and
a restorer of traditional institutions. They credited him with
unifying northern and southern China, but criticized the violence
during and after his rise to power. His high spending on foreign
expansion and domestic projects, particularly the relocation of the
capital, was met with sharp disapproval even during his lifetime. Late
Ming historians justified the negative effects of his rule as
necessary for building a powerful empire. They also strongly condemned
the Yongle Emperor's interventions in education, as his promotion of
neo-Confucian orthodoxy led to a decline in scholarship and
intellectual development.
Modern historians such as Chan Hok-lam and Wang Yuan-kang argue that
the Yongle Emperor's desire for a unified China and domination over
the world ultimately led to decisions that proved problematic in the
long run. They argue that the withdrawal of Ming forces from the outer
defensive line north of the Great Wall was a strategic mistake, making
the country more vulnerable to attack. Additionally, the economic
strain of the Yongle era made it difficult to support large military
operations. The strict control over trade with the Mongols only
worsened relations between the two. The Ming defeat in Đại Việt also
weakened the empire's reputation in Southeast Asia.
Consorts and issue
====================
* Empress Renxiaowen of the Xu clan (1362-1407)
** Princess Yong'an (d. 1417), personal name Yuying, first daughter.
Married in 1395 to Yuan Rong (), Marquis of Guangping ().
** Zhu Gaochi, the Hongxi Emperor (1378-1425), first son
** Princess Yongping (; 1379-1444), personal name Yuegui, second
daughter. Married in 1395 to Li Rang (), Marquis of Fuyang ().
** Zhu Gaoxu, Prince of Han (1380-1426), second son
** Zhu Gaosui, Prince Jian of Zhao (1383-1431), third son
** Princess Ancheng (; 1384-1443), third daughter. Married in 1402 to
Song Hu (), son of Song Sheng, Marquis of Xining.
** Princess Xianning (; 1385-1440), fourth daughter. Married in 1403
to Song Ying (), son of Song Sheng, Marquis of Xining.
* Noble Consort Zhaoxian of the Wang clan (d. 1420)
* Noble Consort Zhaoyi () of the Zhang clan ()
* Consort Gongxianxian of the Korean Andong Gwon clan (1391-1410)
* Consort Zhongjingzhaoshunxian of the Yu clan (d. 1421)
* Consort Kangmuyigonghui () of the Wu clan ()
** Zhu Gaoxi (), fourth son
* Consort Gongshunrongmuli () of the Chen clan (; d. 1424)
* Consort Duanjinggonghuishu () of the Yang clan ()
* Consort Gongherongshunxian () of the Wang clan ()
* Consort Zhaosujinghuixian () of the Wang clan ()
* Consort Zhaohuigongyishun () of the Wang clan ()
* Consort Huimuzhaojingshun () of the Qian clan ()
* Consort Kanghuizhuangshuli of the Korean Cheongju Han clan (d. 1424)
* Consort Kangjingzhuanghehui () of the Korean Choi clan (; 1395-1424)
* Consort Anshunhui () of the Long clan ()
* Consort Zhaoshunde () of the Liu clan ()
* Consort Kangyishun () of the Li clan ()
* Consort Huimushun () of the Guo clan ()
* Consort Zhenjingshun () of the Zhang clan ()
* Consort Shun () of the Korean Im clan (; 1392-1421)
* Consort of the Korean Hwang clan (1401-1421)
* Consort of the Korean Jeong clan (1392-1421)
* Lady of Bright Deportment of the Korean Yi clan (1392-1421)
* Lady of Handsome Fairness of the Korean Ryeo clan (1393-1413)
* Beauty Gongrong () of the Wang clan ()
* Beauty Jinghui () of the Lu clan ()
* Beauty Zhuanghui () of the Wang clan ()
* Unknown
** Princess Changning (; 1386-1408), fifth daughter. Married in 1403
to Mu Xin (), son of Mu Ying, Marquis of Xiping.
See also
======================================================================
* Chinese emperors family tree (late)
* Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
* Yongle Tongbao
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